3 - Religion, Economy and the Pre-colonial Dimensions of the Jos Conflict
Corresponding Author(s) : Jacinta Chiamaka Nwaka
Afrika Zamani,
No. 24 (2016): Afrika Zamani: An Annual Journal of African History
Abstract
Contrary to the popular view that the current Jos conflict is traceable to the effort of the Islamic leaders of the nineteenth century religious movement (jihad) to proselytise the people of the Jos Plateau, this article calls for the extension of the searchlight beyond religion. Using archival documents, oral interviews and secondary materials, it identifies the basis of the nineteenth century conflict between the local groups in the location of the present day Jos and the flag bearers of the Dan Fodio Jihad from the Bauchi Emirate not in religion, but in the latter’s attempt to exploit and dominate the region and its people economically through slave raiding, amana (tribute paying) relationship and some other means using religion. The article argues that almost a century of pre-colonial resistance to the Dan Fodio Jihad in the Jos Plateau, particularly by the three ethnic groups at the location of the present day Jos, does not find explanation in the people’s aversion to Islamic religion, but in the rejection of their economic exploitation by the flag bearers of the religious movement in the area.
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- Abubakar S., 1980, ‘People of the Upper Benue Basin and the Bauchi Plateau Before 1800’, in O. Ikime, Groundwork of Nigerian History, ed., Ibadan: Heinemann, pp.165–186.
- Alozieuwa, A., 2009, ‘Beyond the Ethno-Religious Theory of Jos Conflict’, African Peace and Conflict Journal, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 10–34.
- Anes, C. G., 1934, Gazetteers of the Northern Provinces of Nigeria, Vol. IV The Highland Chieftaincies, London: Frank Cass.
- A.D. Bingel, Jos: Origin and Growth of the City, (Jos: University: Department of Geography, 1978).
- Bitrus, A., 1985, ‘Inter Ethnic Relations in Jos: A Case Study of the Anaguta, Beron, Buji and Jarawa’. B.A. History Project, University of Jos.
- Bunza, M. U., 2007, Christian Mission Among Muslims: Sokoto Province, Nigeria 1935– 1990, Trenton: Africa World Press.
- Danfulani, H. U., 1995, Pebbles and Deities, Pa Divination Among the Ngas Mupum, and Mwaghaval in Nigeria, Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
- Danfulani, U., and Fwatshak, S. U., 2002, ‘Briefing: The September 2001 Event in Jos, Nigeria’, Journal of African Affairs, Vol. 101, pp. 243–255.
- Dauda S., 1995, ‘The Non Penetration of Islam Among the Minorities of Southern Bauchi 1807–1902: A Historical paper presented at the International Conference on Islam and the Political Challenges of Modern Times’, Usman Dan Fodio University Sokoto.
- Davies, J. G., 1949, ‘The Berom: The study of a Nigeria Tribe’, unpublished manuscript at the Jos National Museum Library, Jos, Nigeria.
- Dung P. S., 2005, The Politicization of Settler-Native Identities and Ethno-Religious Conflict in Jos Central Nigeria, Ibadan: Stirling-Horde.
- Fwatshak, S. U., 2006, ‘A Comparative Analysis of the 19th and 21st Century Religious Conflicts in Jos, Plateau, Central Nigeria’, Swedish Missiological Themes, Vol. 94, No. 3, pp. 259–280, 274.
- Gafwen, R., 2011, ‘Historical Overview of Ethno-Religious Conflict in Plateau State: Interventions and Strategies’, in J. Para-Mallam, Finding Durable Peace in Plateau. Ilorin: Haytee Press, pp.11–57.
- Gaya-Best, S., 2007, Conflict and Peace Building in Plateau State, Nigeria, Ibadan: Spectrum.
- Isichei, E., 1977, History of West Africa since 1800, Ibadan: Longman.
- James, P. A., 1981, ‘The Middle Stone Age, North of the Jos Plateau: A Preliminary Report’, African Journal or Archaeology, Vol.10 Journal of Archaeology. Vol. 8, 1979, 139–163.
- Kudu, A. A., 2001, ‘The Rukuba and Their Neighbours: A History of Inter Group Relations on the Jos Plateau of Central Nigeria 1800- 1900’., Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of History, University of Jos.
- Kwaja, C., 2011, ‘Government and Civil Society Efforts in Promoting Peace in Plateau’, in J. Para-Mallam, pp. 77–88.
- Last, M., 1985, ‘Reform in West Africa’, in A., Ajayi, and M. Crowther, eds, History of West Africa, Vol. 2, Benin: Ethiope.
- Madugu, J., 1996, The Biography of His Royal Highness, Dr. Fom Bot, the Gbon Gwom Jos, Jos: Ehindero Nig. Ltd.
- Makar, T., 1979, ‘The Relationship Between the Sokoto Caliphate and the Non-Muslim People of Middle Benue Region’, in Y. B. Usman, ed., Studies in the History of Sokoto Caliphate, New York: Third Press International.
- Mangvwat, M., 1984, ‘Warfare on the Jos Plateau in 19th Century’, in T. Falola and R. Law, eds ,, Warfare and Diplomacy in Pre Colonial Nigeria, Wisconsin: Madison, pp. 111–117.
- Morrison, J., 1982, ‘Plateau Societies’ Resistance to Jihadist Penetration’, in E. Isichei, ed., Studies in the History of Plateau State, Nigeria, London: Macmillan, pp. 137–149.
- Mwadkwom, S. D., 2000, ‘Silencing the Spirits of the Shrines: The Impact of Tin Mining on Beron Religion and Ecology’, Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of History, University of Jos.
- Mwadkwom, S. D., 2001, ‘Religion, the Settlers Question and the Emergence of Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria: A Survey of Jos’, Swedish Missiological Themes, Vol. 89, No. 1, pp 54–71.
- Nnoli, O., 1978, Ethnic Politics in Nigeria, Enugu: Fourth Dimension, 1978.
- Nwaka J. C., 2014b, ‘Speaking to Peace or about Peace: Analyzing the Strategies of Managing Conflict in Jos, 1947–2008’, Journal of International Politics and Development, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 25–46.
- Nwaka, J. C., 2012, ‘Religious Violence in a New Democracy: A Historical Analysis of Kaduna and Jos Crisis of 2000 and 2001’, Ibadan Journal of Humanistic Studies, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 37–47.
- Nwaka, J. C., 2013, ‘Intergroup Relations in a Nigeria City: A Historical Analysis of the Jos Conflict’, unpublished manuscript.
- Nwaka, J. C., 2014a, ‘Ours is the City of ""Peace"": British Colonial Administrative Policies and the Struggle for the Ownership of Jos’, Kiabara, Journal of Humanities, University of Port Harcourt, Vol. 20, pp. 114–132.
- Omoshola, S., 2006, ‘Citizenship, Ethnic Violence and Governmental Response: The Declaration of State of Emergence in Plateau State Nigeria’, in O. Akinwumi, O. Okpeh, and J. Gwamna, eds., Inter-Group Relation in Nigeria During the 19th and 20th Centuries, Markurdi: Aboki, pp. 749–773.
- Plateau Indigenous Development Association Network (PIDAN), 2010, The History, Ownership and Establishment of Jos and Misconception about the Recurrent Jos, Conflicts, Jos: Dan-Sill Press.
- Ratif, A., 1988, The concept of Islamic State with Particular Reference to the Treatment of Non-Muslim Citizens, Malaysia: University Press.
- Tambo, D., 1978, ‘The Hill Refuges of Jos Plateau: Historiographical Examination’, in History in Africa, Vol. 5, pp. 201–223.
- Trimingham, J. S., 1976, A History of Islam in West Africa, London: Q.U.P.
- Turaki, Y., 1982, ‘The Institutionalization of the Inferior Status and Socio-Political Role of the Non-Muslims Groups in the Colonial Hierarchical Structure of the Northern Nigeria: A Socio-Ethical Analysis of the Colonial Legacy’, Ph.D. Dissertation, Wisconsin University.
- Usman, B., 1994, ‘Formation of the Nigerian Economy and Polity in ECPER’, Journal for Political and Economic Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 1–18.
- Usman, B., ed., 1979, Studies in the History of Sokoto Caliphate, New York: Third Press.
- York, R. N., 1979, ‘Excavation of Dutsen Kongba, Plateau State Nigeria’ in West African Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 8, pp. 139–163.
References
Abubakar S., 1980, ‘People of the Upper Benue Basin and the Bauchi Plateau Before 1800’, in O. Ikime, Groundwork of Nigerian History, ed., Ibadan: Heinemann, pp.165–186.
Alozieuwa, A., 2009, ‘Beyond the Ethno-Religious Theory of Jos Conflict’, African Peace and Conflict Journal, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 10–34.
Anes, C. G., 1934, Gazetteers of the Northern Provinces of Nigeria, Vol. IV The Highland Chieftaincies, London: Frank Cass.
A.D. Bingel, Jos: Origin and Growth of the City, (Jos: University: Department of Geography, 1978).
Bitrus, A., 1985, ‘Inter Ethnic Relations in Jos: A Case Study of the Anaguta, Beron, Buji and Jarawa’. B.A. History Project, University of Jos.
Bunza, M. U., 2007, Christian Mission Among Muslims: Sokoto Province, Nigeria 1935– 1990, Trenton: Africa World Press.
Danfulani, H. U., 1995, Pebbles and Deities, Pa Divination Among the Ngas Mupum, and Mwaghaval in Nigeria, Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
Danfulani, U., and Fwatshak, S. U., 2002, ‘Briefing: The September 2001 Event in Jos, Nigeria’, Journal of African Affairs, Vol. 101, pp. 243–255.
Dauda S., 1995, ‘The Non Penetration of Islam Among the Minorities of Southern Bauchi 1807–1902: A Historical paper presented at the International Conference on Islam and the Political Challenges of Modern Times’, Usman Dan Fodio University Sokoto.
Davies, J. G., 1949, ‘The Berom: The study of a Nigeria Tribe’, unpublished manuscript at the Jos National Museum Library, Jos, Nigeria.
Dung P. S., 2005, The Politicization of Settler-Native Identities and Ethno-Religious Conflict in Jos Central Nigeria, Ibadan: Stirling-Horde.
Fwatshak, S. U., 2006, ‘A Comparative Analysis of the 19th and 21st Century Religious Conflicts in Jos, Plateau, Central Nigeria’, Swedish Missiological Themes, Vol. 94, No. 3, pp. 259–280, 274.
Gafwen, R., 2011, ‘Historical Overview of Ethno-Religious Conflict in Plateau State: Interventions and Strategies’, in J. Para-Mallam, Finding Durable Peace in Plateau. Ilorin: Haytee Press, pp.11–57.
Gaya-Best, S., 2007, Conflict and Peace Building in Plateau State, Nigeria, Ibadan: Spectrum.
Isichei, E., 1977, History of West Africa since 1800, Ibadan: Longman.
James, P. A., 1981, ‘The Middle Stone Age, North of the Jos Plateau: A Preliminary Report’, African Journal or Archaeology, Vol.10 Journal of Archaeology. Vol. 8, 1979, 139–163.
Kudu, A. A., 2001, ‘The Rukuba and Their Neighbours: A History of Inter Group Relations on the Jos Plateau of Central Nigeria 1800- 1900’., Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of History, University of Jos.
Kwaja, C., 2011, ‘Government and Civil Society Efforts in Promoting Peace in Plateau’, in J. Para-Mallam, pp. 77–88.
Last, M., 1985, ‘Reform in West Africa’, in A., Ajayi, and M. Crowther, eds, History of West Africa, Vol. 2, Benin: Ethiope.
Madugu, J., 1996, The Biography of His Royal Highness, Dr. Fom Bot, the Gbon Gwom Jos, Jos: Ehindero Nig. Ltd.
Makar, T., 1979, ‘The Relationship Between the Sokoto Caliphate and the Non-Muslim People of Middle Benue Region’, in Y. B. Usman, ed., Studies in the History of Sokoto Caliphate, New York: Third Press International.
Mangvwat, M., 1984, ‘Warfare on the Jos Plateau in 19th Century’, in T. Falola and R. Law, eds ,, Warfare and Diplomacy in Pre Colonial Nigeria, Wisconsin: Madison, pp. 111–117.
Morrison, J., 1982, ‘Plateau Societies’ Resistance to Jihadist Penetration’, in E. Isichei, ed., Studies in the History of Plateau State, Nigeria, London: Macmillan, pp. 137–149.
Mwadkwom, S. D., 2000, ‘Silencing the Spirits of the Shrines: The Impact of Tin Mining on Beron Religion and Ecology’, Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of History, University of Jos.
Mwadkwom, S. D., 2001, ‘Religion, the Settlers Question and the Emergence of Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria: A Survey of Jos’, Swedish Missiological Themes, Vol. 89, No. 1, pp 54–71.
Nnoli, O., 1978, Ethnic Politics in Nigeria, Enugu: Fourth Dimension, 1978.
Nwaka J. C., 2014b, ‘Speaking to Peace or about Peace: Analyzing the Strategies of Managing Conflict in Jos, 1947–2008’, Journal of International Politics and Development, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 25–46.
Nwaka, J. C., 2012, ‘Religious Violence in a New Democracy: A Historical Analysis of Kaduna and Jos Crisis of 2000 and 2001’, Ibadan Journal of Humanistic Studies, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 37–47.
Nwaka, J. C., 2013, ‘Intergroup Relations in a Nigeria City: A Historical Analysis of the Jos Conflict’, unpublished manuscript.
Nwaka, J. C., 2014a, ‘Ours is the City of ""Peace"": British Colonial Administrative Policies and the Struggle for the Ownership of Jos’, Kiabara, Journal of Humanities, University of Port Harcourt, Vol. 20, pp. 114–132.
Omoshola, S., 2006, ‘Citizenship, Ethnic Violence and Governmental Response: The Declaration of State of Emergence in Plateau State Nigeria’, in O. Akinwumi, O. Okpeh, and J. Gwamna, eds., Inter-Group Relation in Nigeria During the 19th and 20th Centuries, Markurdi: Aboki, pp. 749–773.
Plateau Indigenous Development Association Network (PIDAN), 2010, The History, Ownership and Establishment of Jos and Misconception about the Recurrent Jos, Conflicts, Jos: Dan-Sill Press.
Ratif, A., 1988, The concept of Islamic State with Particular Reference to the Treatment of Non-Muslim Citizens, Malaysia: University Press.
Tambo, D., 1978, ‘The Hill Refuges of Jos Plateau: Historiographical Examination’, in History in Africa, Vol. 5, pp. 201–223.
Trimingham, J. S., 1976, A History of Islam in West Africa, London: Q.U.P.
Turaki, Y., 1982, ‘The Institutionalization of the Inferior Status and Socio-Political Role of the Non-Muslims Groups in the Colonial Hierarchical Structure of the Northern Nigeria: A Socio-Ethical Analysis of the Colonial Legacy’, Ph.D. Dissertation, Wisconsin University.
Usman, B., 1994, ‘Formation of the Nigerian Economy and Polity in ECPER’, Journal for Political and Economic Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 1–18.
Usman, B., ed., 1979, Studies in the History of Sokoto Caliphate, New York: Third Press.
York, R. N., 1979, ‘Excavation of Dutsen Kongba, Plateau State Nigeria’ in West African Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 8, pp. 139–163.